2019 Solved Old Paper (BOT-103)
Food Chain (खाध्य शृंखला):- Flow of energy in an ecosystem is one way process. The sequence of organism through which the energy flows, is known as food chain.
(किसी पारिस्थीतिक तंत्र में ऊर्जा का प्रवाह एक तरफ़ा प्रक्रिया है। जीवों का वह क्रम जिसके माध्यम से ऊर्जा प्रवाहित होती है, खाद्य श्रृंखला कहलाती है।)
> Food chains were first introduced by the Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in the 10th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by Charles Elton, which also introduced the food web concept.
(खाद्य श्रृंखलाएं पहली बार 10वीं शताब्दी में अरब वैज्ञानिक और दार्शनिक अल-जाहिज़ द्वारा पेश की गईं और बाद में चार्ल्स एल्टन द्वारा 1927 में प्रकाशित एक पुस्तक में लोकप्रिय हुईं, जिसने खाद्य वेब अवधारणा भी पेश की।)
> Each food chain is made up of different trophic levels.
(प्रत्येक खाद्य श्रृंखला विभिन्न पोषक स्तरों से बनी होती है।)
> Each organism represents a trophic level.
(प्रत्येक जीव एक पोषक स्तर का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है।)
> Each organism obtains energy from the organism of its lower trophic level.
(प्रत्येक जीव अपने निचले पोषक स्तर के जीव से ऊर्जा प्राप्त करता है।)
> Plants are called producers because they create their own food through photosynthesis.
(पौधों को उत्पादक कहा जाता है क्योंकि वे प्रकाश संश्लेषण के माध्यम से अपना भोजन स्वयं बनाते हैं।)
> Animals are consumers because they cannot create their own food, they must eat plants or other animals to get the energy that they need.
(जन्तु उपभोक्ता होते हैं क्योंकि वे अपना भोजन स्वयं नहीं बना सकते, उन्हें आवश्यक ऊर्जा प्राप्त करने के लिए पौधों या अन्य जंतुओं को खाना पड़ता है।)
Ecological factors affecting vegetation:- Plants can be herbs, shrubs, trees, creeper, climber. Plants are the most important renewable resources.
i. Land:-
- Plants are different in different lands such as Mountainous, Plateau, and Plain.
- Pains are suitable for Agriculture.
ii. Soil:-
- Sandy soil of desert support cactus and thorny bushes.
- Wet, Marshy and Deltaic soil are suitable for Mangrove and deltaic vegetation.
- Hill slopes with some depth are suitable for Conical Trees.
iii. Temperature:- Temperature cause the growth and germination of plants.
- Tropical Wet Forest with broad-leaved evergreen trees near the equator.
- Dry forest and scattered trees between 10 to 23-degree latitudes.
- Desert vegetation largely comprises herbs and shrubs near 30 degrees latitudes.
- In the north of the desert, there is temperate grassland or prairie.
- In the north of the grassland, there is a deciduous temperate forest.
- Boreal forest in subarctic in the south of Arctic circle.
- Arctic tundra.
iv. Precipitation:-
- The heavy rainfall region has more dense vegetation and a variety of wildlife.
- Control the growth and diversity of plants; dense forests are found on the equator. Diversity decrease from the equator to the poles as rainfall and temperature decrease from the equator to the poles.
v. Photoperiod:- It influences by latitude, altitude and seasons.
- Variation in the duration of Sunlight at the different places is due to differences in latitude, altitude, season, and duration of the day.
- Larger the day duration larger the trees grow.
vi. Hazards:- Such as fire, landslides.
vii. Human activities:- Such as human settlement, urbanization, pollution, war, deforestation, etc.
Plant succession (पादप अनुक्रमण):- A series of changes in an ecological system across time. It is the process of gradual replacement of one plant community by another plant community which is of stable type.
(समय-समय पर पारिस्थितिक तंत्र में परिवर्तनों की एक श्रृंखला। यह एक पादप समुदाय की दूसरे पादप समुदाय द्वारा क्रमिक प्रतिस्थापन की प्रक्रिया है जो स्थायी प्रकार का होता है।)
3 types of communities are developed in plant succession (पादप अनुक्रमण में 3 प्रकार के समुदाय विकसित होते हैं):-
i. Pioneer community (अग्रणी समुदाय):- It is the first plant community which develops in a bare area.
(यह पहला पादप समुदाय है जो बंजर क्षेत्र में विकसित होता है।)
ii. Seral communities (सीरल समुदाय):- These are the plant communities that develop during the succession.
(ये वे पादप समुदाय हैं जो अनुक्रमण के दौरान विकसित होते हैं।)
iii.Climax community (चरमोत्कर्ष समुदाय):- It is the last invading community.
(यह अंतिम आक्रमणकारी समुदाय होता है।)
Niche (निच):- It is defined as a functional role played by an organism in its ecosystem. It is the effective role and position of a species in its environment that describes how the species responds to the location of resources and competitors or predators.
(इसे किसी जीव द्वारा उसके पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में निभाई जाने वाली कार्यात्मक भूमिका के रूप में परिभाषित किया गया है। यह अपने पर्यावरण में किसी जाति की प्रभावी भूमिका और स्थिति है जो बताती है कि जाति संसाधनों और प्रतिस्पर्धियों या शिकारियों के स्थान पर कैसे प्रतिक्रिया करती है।)
> Joseph Grinnel coined the term “Niche”. He described a niche as the distributional unit specific to each species.
(जोसेफ़ ग्रिनेल ने "निच" शब्द दिया। उन्होंने प्रत्येक जाति के लिए विशिष्ट वितरण इकाई के रूप में एक निच का वर्णन किया।)
Sources of water pollution (जल प्रदूषण के कारण):- Water pollution in India according to Gbamanija (1998) arises from various activities, among which are:
[गबामनिजा (1998) के अनुसार भारत में जल प्रदूषण विभिन्न गतिविधियों से उत्पन्न होता है, जिनमें से हैं:]
> Sewage leakages (वाहित माल रिसाव)
> High population density (उच्च आवादी घनत्व)
> Oil spillage (तेल छलकन)
> Industrial waste dumped into our waters.
(औद्योगिक कचरा हमारे जल में बहा दिया जाता है।)
> Pollution of ground water through drilling activities.
(ड्रिलिंग गतिविधियों के माध्यम से भूजल का प्रदूषण।)
> Flooding during rainy season which carries waste deposits into our waters.
(बरसात के मौसम में बाढ़ आती है जो हमारे जल में अपशिष्ट पदार्थ जमा कर देती है।)
> Building lavatories and visionaries over running water or even the sea as it the practice in some riverine areas.
(बहते पानी या यहाँ तक कि समुद्र के ऊपर शौचालय और दूरदर्शिता का निर्माण करना जैसा कि कुछ नदी क्षेत्रों में किया जाता है।)
> Vehicle pollution (वाहन प्रदूषण)
> Combustion (दहन)
> Toxic waste disposal at sea (समुद्र में विषाक्त अपशिष्ट निपटान)
> Mineral processing plant (खनिज संसाधन संयंत्र)
> Eroded sediments (अपरदित तलछटें)
> Deforestation (वनोन्मूलन)
> Mining (खनन)
> Pesticides (कीटनाशी)
> Herbicides and fertilizers (शाकनाशी व उर्वरक)
> Failing septic system (सेप्टिक प्रणाली का विफल होना)
> House hold chemicals (घरेलू रसायन)
> Animal wastes (जन्तु अपशिष्ट)
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1. Nitrogen cycle (नाइट्रोजन चक्र):-
> Nitrogen is essential for life form owing to its presence in nucleic acids and proteins. Plants absorb nitrogen through microbial transformations.
(न्यूक्लिक अम्ल और प्रोटीन में उपस्थित होने के कारण नाइट्रोजन जीवन के लिए आवश्यक है। पौधे सूक्ष्मजीवी परिवर्तनों के माध्यम से नाइट्रोजन को अवशोषित करते हैं।)
> Stages (चरण):-
i. Nitrogen fixation (नाइट्रोजन स्थिरीकरण):-
- In this step the atmospheric nitrogen is primarily available in the inert form which is then converted to ammonia which can be used.
(इस चरण में वायुमंडलीय नाइट्रोजन मुख्य रूप से निष्क्रिय रूप में उपलब्ध होती है जिसे बाद में अमोनिया में परिवर्तित किया जाता है जिसका उपयोग किया जा सकता है।)
- During this process the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited into solid from the atmosphere and surface waters with the help of precipitation.
(इस प्रक्रिया के दौरान नाइट्रोजन गैस का अक्रिय रूप वायुमंडल और सतही जल से वर्षा की सहायता से ठोस में जमा हो जाता है।)
- The nitrogen then undergoes a number of processes to combine with the hydrogen to form ammonia.
(फिर नाइट्रोजन को हाइड्रोजन के साथ मिलकर अमोनिया बनाने के लिए कई प्रक्रियाओं से गुजरना पड़ता है।)
- This whole process of nitrogen fixation is done by symbiotic bacteria.
(नाइट्रोजन स्थिरीकरण की यह पूरी प्रक्रिया सहजीवी जीवाणुओं द्वारा की जाती है।)
- The fixation can occur through atmospheric fixation.
(स्थिरीकरण वायुमंडलीय स्थिरीकरण के माध्यम से हो सकता है।)
ii. Nitrogen assimilation (नाइट्रोजन स्वांगीकरण):- The primary producers tend to consume the nitrogen compounds with the help of roots and they are present in forms such as ammonia, nitrite ammonium ions or nitrate ions. They are used in the formation of proteins.
(प्राथमिक उत्पादक जड़ों की सहायता से नाइट्रोजन यौगिकों का उपभोग करते हैं और वे अमोनिया, नाइट्राइट अमोनियम आयन या नाइट्रेट आयन जैसे रूपों में मौजूद होते हैं। इनका उपयोग प्रोटीन के निर्माण में किया जाता है।)
iii. Ammonification (अमोनीकरण):- When plants or animals die the nitrogen that is present in the organic matter tends to be released back into the soil. The decomposers then take action on the nitrogen present in the soil hence producing ammonia by decomposition.
(जब पौधे या जन्तु मर जाते हैं तो कार्बनिक पदार्थों में उपस्थित नाइट्रोजन वापस मृदा में छोड़ दी जाती है। फिर अपघटक मृदा में उपस्थित नाइट्रोजन पर क्रिया करते हैं जिससे अपघटन द्वारा अमोनिया का उत्पादन होता है।)
iv. Nitrification (नाइट्रीकरण):- In this process the ammonia will be converted into nitrite which is framed by the oxidation of ammonia done by bacteria of Nitrosomonas species. Nitrites are then converted to nitrates which is an important conversion as the ammonia gas produced is very harmful for plants.
(इस प्रक्रिया में अमोनिया को नाइट्राइट में परिवर्तित किया जाता है जो नाइट्रोसोमोनास जाति के जीवाणुओं द्वारा किए गए अमोनिया के ऑक्सीकरण द्वारा तैयार किया जाता है। फिर नाइट्राइट को नाइट्रेट में बदल दिया जाता है जो एक महत्वपूर्ण रूपांतरण है क्योंकि उत्पादित अमोनिया गैस पौधों के लिए बहुत हानिकारक होती है।)
v. Denitrification (विनाइट्रीकरण):- In this step the nitrogen compounds tend to go back to the atmosphere by getting converted to nitrogen from nitrate. This conversion is done by Clostridium and Pseudomonas bacteria.
(इस चरण में नाइट्रोजन यौगिक नाइट्रेट से नाइट्रोजन में परिवर्तित होकर वायुमंडल में वापस चले जाते हैं। यह रूपांतरण क्लोस्ट्रीडियम और स्यूडोमोनास जीवाणुओं द्वारा किया जाता है।)
2. Phosphorus cycle (फॉस्फोरस चक्र):-
> Phosphorus mainly passes through the hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
(फॉस्फोरस मुख्य रूप से जलमंडल, स्थलमंडल और जीवमंडल से होकर गुजरता है।)
> It is essential for both animal and plant growth.
(यह जन्तु और पौधे दोनों की वृद्धि के लिए आवश्यक होता है।)
> However, it gradually depletes in soil.
(हालाँकि, यह धीरे-धीरे मृदा में ख़त्म हो जाता है।)
> In comparison to the carbon cycle, the phosphorus cycle does not pass through the atmosphere.
(कार्बन चक्र की तुलना में, फॉस्फोरस चक्र वायुमंडल से नहीं गुजरता है।)
> Phosphorus cycle is said to be a very slow process.
(फॉस्फोरस चक्र को बहुत धीमी प्रक्रिया कहा जाता है।)
> Stages (चरण):-
i.Weathering (अपक्षय):- The phosphate salts are mostly found in rocks and are hence broken down and washed away from the rocks into the ground. Hence it is seen that the process starts from the earth’s crust.
(फॉस्फेट लवण अधिकतर चट्टानों में पाए जाते हैं और इसलिए टूट जाते हैं और चट्टानों से बहकर जमीन में चले जाते हैं। इसलिए यह देखा गया है कि यह प्रक्रिया पृथ्वी की पपड़ी से शुरू होती है।)
ii. Absorption by Plants (पौधों द्वारा अवशोषण):- The phosphate salts once dissolved in soil will be absorbed by the plans however the amount taken is very less. Hence some phosphate fertilizers are added by farmers for the plants to take in. However as phosphates do not properly dissolve in water they are not absorbed by the life in aquatic ecosystems.
(फॉस्फेट लवण एक बार मृदा में घुल जाने के बाद योजनाओं द्वारा अवशोषित कर लिए जाते हैं, हालांकि ली गई मात्रा बहुत कम होती है। इसलिए किसानों द्वारा पौधों को ग्रहण करने के लिए कुछ फॉस्फेट उर्वरक डाले जाते हैं। हालाँकि, चूँकि फॉस्फेट जल में ठीक से नहीं घुलते हैं इसलिए वे जलीय पारिस्थितिक तंत्र में जीवन द्वारा अवशोषित नहीं होते हैं।)
iii. Absorption by Animals (जंतुओं द्वारा अवशोषण):- The animals absorb most of the phosphorus content by consumption of other animals and plants. The rate of phosphorus cycle is faster in most animals compared to as seen in rocks.
(जन्तु अधिकांश फॉस्फोरस सामग्री को अन्य जंतुओं और पौधों खाकर अवशोषित करते हैं। अधिकांश जंतुओं में फॉस्फोरस चक्र की दर चट्टानों की तुलना में तेज़ होती है।)
iv. Phosphorus being returned to the ecosystem (फॉस्फोरस को पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में लौटाया जा रहा है):- The plants and animals then tend to die and hence pass on the phosphorus from their body back to the ecosystem which is converted into the inorganic form and recycled to rocks and soil. This step is further again seen by weathering and hence the cycle goes again on.
(पौधे और जन्तु जब मरने लगते हैं तो उनके शरीर से फास्फोरस वापस पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में चला जाता है जो अकार्बनिक रूप में परिवर्तित हो जाता है और चट्टानों और मृदा में पुनर्चक्रित हो जाता है। यह चरण फिर से अपक्षय द्वारा ले लिया जाता है और इसलिए चक्र फिर से चलता रहता है।)
Ecosystem (पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र):- It is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment.
(यह पारिस्थितिकी की एक संरचनात्मक और कार्यात्मक इकाई है जहां जीवित जीव एक दूसरे और आसपास के वातावरण के साथ अंत:क्रिया करते हैं।)
> The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
("पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र" शब्द पहली बार 1935 में एक अंग्रेजी वनस्पतिशास्त्री A.G. टैन्सले द्वारा गढ़ा गया था।)
Characteristics of Ecosystem (पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र की विशेषताएँ):-
i. Links to other ecosystems (अन्य पारिस्थितिक तंत्रों से संबंध):- No ecosystem exist alone. They are interconnected via inputs and outputs.
(कोई भी पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र अकेले मौजूद नहीं होता है। बहुत से पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र इनपुट और आउटपुट के माध्यम से आपस में जुड़े हुए होते हैं।)
ii. Structural complexity (संरचनात्मक जटिलता):- Ecosystem is combination of many factors.
(पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र कई कारकों का संयोजन है।)
iii. Resiliense (लचीलापन):- It is ability of ecosystem to return to its original state after being exposed to a stressful situation.
(यह पारिस्थितिक तंत्र की तनावपूर्ण स्थिति के संपर्क में आने के बाद अपनी मूल स्थिति में लौटने की क्षमता है।)
iv. Dynamic stability (गतिशील स्थायित्व):- Ecosystems always undergo changes. Changes takes place both in living and non-living factors. Natural ecosystems remain stable during these change.
(पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में हमेशा परिवर्तन होते रहते हैं। परिवर्तन सजीव और निर्जीव दोनों कारकों में होता है। इन परिवर्तनों के दौरान प्राकृतिक पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र स्थायी रहता है।)
Composition and structure of Ecosystem (पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र की संरचना और संगठन):- The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components -
(पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र की संरचना को दो मुख्य घटकों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है -)
1. Abiotic Components (अजैविक घटक)
2. Biotic Components (जैविक घटक)
1. Abiotic Components (अजैविक घटक):- These are the non-living component of an ecosystem.
(ये पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र के निर्जीव घटक हैं।)
a. Climatic factors (जलवायु कारक):-
i. Rain (वर्षा):- It is a crucial factor in determining the climate of a given location. Once again rain is heavily influenced by the Sun as it drives evaporation from the Earth’s ocean which is then dumped as rain. Rain can also be regulated through the release of water from plants.
(यह किसी स्थान की जलवायु का निर्धारण करने में एक महत्वपूर्ण कारक है। एक बार फिर वर्षा सूर्य से बहुत अधिक प्रभावित होती है क्योंकि यह पृथ्वी के महासागर से वाष्पीकरण उत्पन्न करता है जिसे बाद में वर्षा के रूप में छोड़ दिया जाता है। पौधों से जलवाष्प छोड़ कर भी वर्षा को नियंत्रित किया जा सकता है।)
ii. Light (प्रकाश):- Sunlight is one of the most important abiotic factors and is the primary source of energy. Plants require it for photosynthesis.
(सूर्य का प्रकाश सबसे महत्वपूर्ण अजैविक कारकों में से एक है और ऊर्जा का प्राथमिक स्रोत है। पौधों को प्रकाश संश्लेषण के लिए इसकी आवश्यकता होती है।)
iii. Temperature (तापमान):- A rise in temperature can change the development of an animal, can cause changes in metabolic activity, and much more. All organisms can tolerate a certain range of temperature and extreme temperatures lead to stressful conditions.
(तापमान में वृद्धि किसी जन्तु के विकास को बदल सकती है, उपापचय क्रिया में बदलाव ला सकती है और भी बहुत कुछ। सभी जीव तापमान की एक निश्चित सीमा को सहन कर सकते हैं और अत्यधिक तापमान तनावपूर्ण स्थितियों को उत्पन्न करता है।)
iv. Humidity (आर्द्रता):- It is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Temperature and pressure both have a role in this. The rate of transpiration in plants is affected by humidity. Humidity, as well as temperature and precipitation, have an impact on plant distribution.
(यह वायुमंडल में जलवाष्प की मात्रा है। इसमें तापमान और दाब दोनों की भूमिका होती है। पौधों में वाष्पोत्सर्जन की दर आर्द्रता से प्रभावित होती है। आर्द्रता, साथ ही तापमान और वर्षा का पौधों के वितरण पर प्रभाव पड़ता है।)
v. Wind (हवा):- The wind direction and speed in an area affect its temperature and humidity. Very high wind speeds, often in mountainous areas, can be the reason behind stunted plant growth. Wind also carries seeds and aids in pollination.
(किसी क्षेत्र में हवा की दिशा और गति उसके तापमान और आर्द्रता को प्रभावित करती है। पहाड़ी इलाकों में अक्सर बहुत तेज़ हवा की गति, पौधों की वृद्धि में रुकावट का कारण हो सकती है। हवा बीज भी ले जाती है और परागण में सहायता करती है।)
vi. Air (वायु):- Air is a mixture of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and 0.3% argon. Air also contains water vapor and dust particles, which protect us from the harmful effects of UV rays.
(वायु 21% ऑक्सीजन, 78% नाइट्रोजन, 0.03% कार्बन डाइऑक्साइड और 0.3% आर्गन का मिश्रण है। हवा में जलवाष्प और धूल के कण भी होते हैं, जो हमें पराबैंगनी किरणों के हानिकारक प्रभावों से बचाते हैं।)
b. Edaphic factors (मृदीय कारक):-
i. Minerals (खनिज):- All of the essential mineral nutrients for plant and animal growth and development are present in the soil. In geology and mineralogy, minerals are simply defined as solid substances found in nature that can be created by combining one or more elements (chemical compounds). Soil contains minerals like phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen that help plants grow and develop.
[पौधों और जंतुओं की वृद्धि और विकास के लिए सभी आवश्यक खनिज पोषक तत्व मृदा में मौजूद होते हैं। भूविज्ञान और खनिज विज्ञान में, खनिजों को केवल प्रकृति में पाए जाने वाले ठोस पदार्थों के रूप में परिभाषित किया जाता है जिन्हें एक या अधिक तत्वों (रासायनिक यौगिकों) के संयोजन से बनाया जा सकता है। मृदा में फॉस्फोरस, पोटेशियम और नाइट्रोजन जैसे खनिज होते हैं जो पौधों को बढ़ने और विकसित होने में मदद करते हैं।]
ii. Soil (मृदा):- Soil is a critical abiotic factor. It is composed of rocks as well as decomposed plants and animals. Many different microorganisms can be found in soil. Soil is where plants grow. Through its roots, it obtains nutrition from the soil.
(मृदा एक महत्वपूर्ण अजैविक कारक है। यह चट्टानों के साथ-साथ विघटित पौधों और जंतुओं से बनी होती है। मृदा में अनेक अलग-अलग सूक्ष्मजीव पाए जा सकते हैं। मृदा वह है जहाँ पौधे उगते हैं। यह अपनी जड़ों के माध्यम से मृदा से पोषण प्राप्त करते हैं।)
iii. Topography (स्थलाकृति):- Height, slope direction, and slope steepness are all included. These elements alter the environmental conditions, which affect how organisms grow and evolve.
(इसमें ऊंचाई, ढलान की दिशा और ढलान की तीव्रता सभी शामिल होते हैं। ये तत्व पर्यावरणीय परिस्थितियों को बदल देते हैं, जो जीवों के बढ़ने और विकसित होने के तरीके को प्रभावित करते हैं।)
iv. pH:- Living things are also impacted by changes in pH. Because of the rise in carbon dioxide, there is an increase in acidity in several regions of the planet. It has produced an acidic environment.
(pH में परिवर्तन से जीवित चीजें भी प्रभावित होती हैं। कार्बन डाइऑक्साइड में वृद्धि के कारण ग्रह के कई क्षेत्रों में अम्लता में वृद्धि हो रही है। इससे अम्लीय वातावरण उत्पन्न हो गया है।)
2.Biotic Components (जैविक घटक):- They refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into 3 types -
येवे एक पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में सभी जीवित घटकों को संदर्भित करते हैं। पोषण के आधार पर जैविक घटकों को 3 प्रकारों में वर्गीकृत किया जा सकता है -)
a. Producers (उत्पादक):- They include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis.
(इनमें सभी स्वपोषी शामिल हैं जैसे पौधे। इन्हें स्वपोषी कहा जाता है क्योंकि ये प्रकाश संश्लेषण की प्रक्रिया के माध्यम से भोजन का उत्पादन कर सकते हैं।)
b. Consumers or Heterotrophs (उपभोक्ता या विषमपोषी):- They are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are further classified into 4 types -
(ये ऐसे जीव हैं जो भोजन के लिए दूसरे जीवों पर निर्भर रहते हैं। उपभोक्ताओं को आगे 4 प्रकारों में वर्गीकृत किया गया है -)
i. Primary consumers (प्राथमिक उपभोक्ता):- They are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food. Eg.- zebras, goats, cattle, rabbits, grasshoppers, deer etc.
(ये हमेशा शाकाहारी होते हैं क्योंकि ये भोजन के लिए उत्पादकों पर निर्भर रहते हैं। जैसे- ज़ेबरा, बकरी, मवेशी, खरगोश, टिड्डे, हिरण आदि।)
ii. Secondary consumers (द्वितीयक उपभोक्ता):- They depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be carnivores or omnivores. Eg.- crows, dogs, cats, rats, foxes etc.
(ये भोजन के लिए प्राथमिक उपभोक्ताओं पर निर्भर हैं। ये या तो मांसाहारी या सर्वाहारी हो सकते हैं। जैसे- कौआ, कुत्ता, बिल्ली, चूहा, लोमड़ी आदि।)
iii. Tertiary consumers (तृतीयक उपभोक्ता):- They are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores. These are only carnivores where they only consume meat usually by preying on prey. Eg.- wolves, owls, snakes etc.
(ये ऐसे जीव हैं जो भोजन के लिए द्वितीयक उपभोक्ताओं पर निर्भर रहते हैं। तृतीयक उपभोक्ता मांसाहारी या सर्वाहारी भी हो सकते हैं। ये केवल मांसाहारी हैं जहां वे आमतौर पर शिकार का शिकार करके केवल मांस खाते हैं। जैसे- भेड़िये, उल्लू, साँप आदि।)
iv. Quaternary consumers (चतुर्थक उपभोक्ता):- They are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural predators. Eg.- tigers, cheaters, lions, hawks, polar bears, alligators, sharks etc.
(ये कुछ खाद्य श्रृंखलाओं में मौजूद होते हैं। ये जीव भोजन के लिए तृतीयक उपभोक्ताओं का शिकार करते हैं। इसके अलावा, ये आमतौर पर खाद्य श्रृंखला में सबसे ऊपर होते हैं क्योंकि उनका कोई प्राकृतिक शिकारी नहीं होता है। जैसे- बाघ, चीता, शेर, बाज, ध्रुवीय भालू, घड़ियाल, शार्क आदि।)
c. Decomposers (अपघटक):- They include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
(इनमें कवक और जीवाणुओं जैसे मृतोपजीवी शामिल होते हैं। ये सीधे मृत और सड़ने वाले कार्बनिक पदार्थों पर पनपते हैं। पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र के लिए अपघटक आवश्यक होते हैं क्योंकि ये पौधों द्वारा पुन: उपयोग किए जाने वाले पोषक तत्वों को पुनर्चक्रित करने में सहायता करते हैं।)
Functions of Ecosystem (पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र के कार्य):-
i. Energy flow (ऊर्जा प्रवाह)
ii. Nutrient cycling (पोषक तत्वो का चक्रण)
iii. Ecological succession (पारिस्थितिक अनुक्रमण)
iv. Homeostasis (समस्थैतिकता)
Effect of Environmental pollution on Plants:-
Effect of Air Pollution on Plants:-
1. Damaging the plants:- Air pollution means the introduction of harmful chemicals into the air, like sulfur, nitrogen oxides and carbons. These chemicals cause damage to plants, with the plants physically showing the damage in a variety of ways, for instance through stunted growth, necrotic lesions, and changes in colors. Change in color could be represented by chlorosis which is when plant leaves turn yellow, reddening, mottling or bronzing.
2. Obstructing a plant’s growth:- Ozone is harmful to the atmosphere as it leads to holes in the upper atmosphere. In doing so, ultraviolet light is able to pass through the atmosphere, causing further damage to plants. Destruction by the ozone in the lower atmosphere restricts respiration, obstructs stomata, prevents photosynthesis and stunts plant growth.
3. Reduced yields and damage to crops:- Plants absorb pollutants from the air, making the air cleaner. With a build-up of too many pollutants, plants may fail to grow as they should, including being unable to perform photosynthesis. This, in turn, will mean plants will fail to have fewer yields than they should. Reduced yields especially in agricultural crops will mean hunger for the people and animals, and will also drive prices of such commodities up, destabilizing the economy.
4. Contributing to global warming:- With air pollution affecting plants and their leaves, it means they will be unable to absorb carbon dioxide as they should. This means more carbon dioxide will escape into the atmosphere, which will further damage the ozone layer, and cause a build-up of more greenhouse gases. This will also contribute to global warming and subsequently climate change.
Effect of Water Pollution on Plants:-
1. Denying plants essential nutrients:- Plants require specific nutrients, which they get from the soil, water and air. Polluted waters might kill some of those nutrients, further denying the plant the ability to get them.
2. Poisoning the soils:- Water pollution will introduce toxins that are harmful to plants. An accumulation of such toxins in the water will poison the soils even for other crops or plants. This will in turn negatively affect the solubility of essential nutrients and ions, like magnesium, calcium and potassium, which are particularly vital for proper plant growth. Water pollution also introduces large amounts of aluminum to the soil, which harms plants.
3. Facilitating the growth of rival plants:- Water pollution gives rise and ample room for other plants to grow. These new plants may not be native to a region and could be detrimental to the existing plants. These weeds will grow well because the nutrients they require for survival are collected in the polluted water.
4. Killing and harming plants:- Water pollution changes the growing conditions of plants, including eroding necessary nutrients and bringing in new and hazardous ones. This means the normal growth of plants will be affected and the plants themselves will be harmed. If the condition is persistent, the plants will eventually die. Water pollution can also alter a plant’s surrounding pH levels, such as acid rain, which also harms and kills plants.
Effect of Soil Pollution on Plants:-
1. Poisoning the soils:- Toxins will enter the soil and poison it, causing a chain reaction. The result will be an alteration in the soil’s biodiversity, reduction in the soil’s organic matter, as well as its capacity to act as a filter. With regards to plants, the soil becomes weak and is not able to sustain plants as compared to previous years. This explains why most farms which rely on fertilizers, have been giving out lower yields year after year. Soil pollution increases the salinity of the soil making it unfit for vegetation, thus making it useless and barren.
2. Poisoning the plants:- As mentioned underwater pollution, toxins poison the soil and in turn, poison the plants themselves. Land pollution through oil spills, pesticides, landfills, illegal dumping and many other sources results in chemicals seeping into the soil and eventually into the plants. These chemicals and metals damage plant cells and hinder them from obtaining the necessary nutrients for growing. This explains why soil pollution also leads to lower yields and poor quality harvests.
3. The effects reach our food chain:- Soil pollution, affects plants, meaning they will absorb the pollutants. If we feed on such plants or crops, like vegetables, we inadvertently end up poisoning ourselves. It also means we do the same by consuming animal products like meat and milk if the animals themselves fed on these compromised plants.
4. Affecting waterways:- When the soil is contaminated, water that is stored in the soil and below it is also affected, causing a lot more issues. This water is used by millions directly and indirectly. The indirect part is that other people will grow crops using the same contaminated water, spreading the problem to more people who may be many miles away.
Effect of Environmental pollution on Animals:-
Effect of air pollution on animals:-
1. Altered animal behavior:- An increasing number of studies demonstrated that pollutants can trigger bizarre behavior in animals. For example, endocrine disruptors, heavy metals, and PCBs have a direct influence on the social and mating behaviors of animals.
2. Diseases and Mortality:- In most cases, the effect is indirect but slowly kills animals by disrupting biological processes. Air pollutants disrupt endocrine function, cause organ injury, increase vulnerability to stresses and diseases, lower reproductive success. Prolonged exposure to air pollutants can increase the expression of markers of neurodegenerative disease pathologies.
3. Biodiversity loss:- Air pollution is a major driving force changing the basic structure and function of ecosystems. For example, excess deposition of airborne nitrogen (N) in the form of ammonia is among the main stressors to biodiversity. Biodiversity is critical for animals because an impairment can result in alterations in the food chain and loss of certain species. Biodiversity loss can also increase the risk of infectious diseases.
4. Change in species distribution:- Industrial air pollution can cause a change in the abundance of a particular species. For example, the loss of certain fish species due to higher aluminum levels may allow insect species to increase, which may in turn benefit ducks that feed on insects. But this loss could be detrimental to eagles, ospreys, and other animals that depend on fish as their food.
Effect of water pollution on animals:-
> Chemical contaminants carried by industrial wastes kill a lot of smaller aquatic organisms, such as frogs, fish, tadpoles, etc. This, in turn, causes a loss of food source for bigger aquatic creatures, leading them to either consume poisoned, dead fish and perish, or leave their natural habitat to go in search of food in other aquatic quarters. Often, this leads to sickness and death of these animals due to the inability to adapt to changed water temperatures, unfavorable tides, as well as exposure to new predators.
> An excess of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus in the water, leads to an increased growth of toxic algae and aquatic plants, that cause poisoning and death in fish and other animals who feed on them.
> Presence of huge quantities of mercury in water has led to a lot of undesirable changes in aquatic species. Too much mercury leads to hormonal imbalances and glandular damage, leading to abnormal behavioral shifts. Also, mercury is a toxic metallic chemical that gives a huge blow to the reproductive functions, growth and development of animals, that are continuously exposed to high doses of it.
> Oil spills that introduce unhealthy amounts of oil into the marine environment also make marine animals sick and lead to their unnatural deaths.
> Dumping solid trash such as plastic, metallic scrap, garbage, etc., may block aquatic channels, and can also cause small animals to get trapped in the debris. Most water-dwelling animals tend to suffocate or drown on being trapped and unable to swim.
> Polluted water used for irrigation also contaminates the soil and the agricultural produce. This may lead to health issues in herbivorous animals who feed on agricultural plants and leftovers.
> These pollutants can radically alter the metabolism of a number of soil-dwelling bacteria and insects, making them perish or unsuitable for consumption by common predators of the local ecosystem.
> Atmospheric pollutants may get mixed with clouds and fall back on earth as acid rain. This toxic shower is potent enough to inflict mortal injuries to any life form that gets exposed to it.
Effect of noise pollution on animals:-
> Animals rely heavily on sounds to communicate, to find food, avoid predators etc.
> Pets react more aggressively due to exposure to constant noise. They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems.
> Overexposure to high intensity of noise affects the hearing ability of many animals.
> Man-made noise affects mating calls and echolocation. This leads to reduction in survival and reproduction rates.
> At an ecosystem level, noise pollution could lead to migration of animals. Their migration can affect the crop production. Because many animals such as bats pollinate bananas, peaches, agave and other cash crops.
Effect of Environmental pollution on Human beings:-
Effect of air pollution on human beings:-
> Air Pollution can lead to increasing diseases like throat infections and lung cancer in humans.
> Every year, diseases related to air pollution kill and hospitalize millions of people.
> According to World Health Organization estimates, one out of every eight fatalities worldwide is caused by conditions related to air pollution.
> New research has found significant correlations between the development of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders and both outdoor and indoor air pollution.
> Ischemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and acute lower respiratory infections in children are among the most prevalent diseases induced by air pollution.
> Ischemic heart disease, or coronary heart disease, is connected to the deposition of calcium or other materials like fat within the coronary artery. This causes blockages, preventing blood from reaching the heart and other vital organs. According to new research, air pollution hastens the occlusion of arteries, increasing the risk of ischemic heart disease.
> Air pollution lead to depletion of the ozone layer that protects us from harmful UV sun rays. The presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is degrading the ozone layer on Earth. As the ozone layer thins, damaging rays are emitted back to Earth, potentially causing skin and eye problems. UV rays have the power to harm crops as well.
Effect of water pollution on human beings:-
> Microplastics can enter the body through drinking water or eating contaminated seafood.
> Microplastics have been linked to oxidative stress, inflammatory reactions, and metabolic disorders in humans, according to research.
> Contaminated water has significant negative effects on pregnant women who are exposed to chemicals; it increases the rate of low birth weight, affecting foetal health.
> Hair loss, liver cirrhosis, renal failure, and neural disorder are all caused by metal contaminated water.
> Domestic and hospital sewage include a variety of dangerous germs, and dumping it into the water without sufficient treatment can result in an outbreak of deadly diseases like typhoid and cholera.
> Metals in industrial wastewaters such as lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, mercury, and cadmium harm humans and other creatures.
> Consumption of arsenic-polluted water causes arsenic accumulation in body parts such as blood, nails, and hair, resulting in skin lesions, rough skin, dry and thickened skin, and eventually skin cancer.
> Bacterial action converts mercury molecules in wastewater to extremely poisonous methyl mercury, which can induce numbness in the limbs, lips, and tongue, hearing, blurred eyesight, and mental instability.
> In humans, mercury pollution of water bodies produces Minamata (neurological condition).
> Lead poisoning is caused by lead (Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues).
> Anemia, headaches, muscle weakness, and a bluish line around the gums are all symptoms of lead poisoning.
> Cadmium-contaminated water can induce itai itai disease, also known as ouch-ouch disease (a painful bone and joint condition), as well as lung and liver cancer.
Other Diseases:-
i. Bacterial Diseases:-
> The most common causes of diarrhoea are untreated drinking water and fecal contamination of water.
> Campylobacter jejuni causes diarrhoea in 4% to 15% of the world's population.
> The most common symptoms of diarrhoea include fever, stomach pain, nausea, and headache.
> Shigellosis is an infection caused by the Shigella bacteria.
> Humans' digestive tracts are affected, and the intestinal lining is damaged.
> Salmonella bacteria are discovered in contaminated water, causing intestinal inflammation and, in some cases, death.
ii. Viral Diseases:-
> Hepatitis is a viral infection of the liver caused by polluted water.
> Hepatitis symptoms include jaundice, loss of appetite, weariness, pain, and a high temperature.
> If it continues over an extended period of time, it may even be deadly and can result in death.
> Encephalitis is an inflammatory disease spread by mosquito bites. The eggs of the Culex mosquito are laid in contaminated water.
> Poliomyelitis is caused by the poliomyelitis virus, which is spread through contaminated water.
> It produces a sore throat, fever, nausea, constipation, diarrhoea, and paralysis in certain people.
> Viruses such as rotaviruses, adenoviruses, caliciviruses, and the Norwalk virus, which breed in contaminated water, cause gastroenteritis.
iii. Parasitic Diseases:-
> The symptoms of cryptosporidiosis include diarrhoea, loose or watery stools, stomach pains, and an upset stomach.
> Entamoeba histolytica, a parasite which attacks the stomach lining, is found in the contaminated water.
> According to the WHO, there are around 4 billion diarrheal cases worldwide, with 2.2 million fatalities.
Effect of noise pollution on human beings:- Human response to noise varies from man to man according to age and temperament. It may vary even in the same individual from time to time because of change in health, fatigue and other conditions. The effects of noise on human beings are as under:-
a. Auditory effects:-
i. Deafness or impaired hearing:- Prolonged exposures to noise lead to gradual deterioration of internal ear and subsequently hearing loss or deafness. It may occur due to continuous exposure to noise level of more than 90 dB. It may be temporary or permanent. Explosions or other high intensity sounds can also cause immediate deafness by rupturing the ear drums or damaging the cochlea. Many time hearing loss is attributed to occupation.
ii. Auditory fatigue:- It is defined as a temporary loss of hearing after exposure to sound. Continuous humming sound such as whistling and buzzing in the ears.
b. Non auditory effects:-
i. Irritation and annoyance:- Noise, sometimes, leads to emotional disturbances and makes people loose their temper. It can interfere with proper rest and sleep. Annoyance seems to increase with the loudness of the sound.
ii. Work efficiency:- It has been observed that noise reduces the efficiency of work.
iii. Physiological effects:- It includes dilation of the pupils, paling of skin, tensing of voluntary muscles, diminishing of gastric secretions, increase in diastolic blood pressure and the sudden injection of adrenalins into blood stream which increases neuromuscular tension, nervousness, irritability and anxieties. It can adversely affect the development of unborn babies.
c. Other health effects:- Noise is also associated with headache, giddiness, sweating, nausea, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, disturbed sleep pattern, psychological stress.
d. Trouble Communicating:- High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow people to communicate freely. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional balance.