2021 Solved Old Paper (BOT-103)
Ecosystem (पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र):- It is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment.
(यह पारिस्थितिकी की एक संरचनात्मक और कार्यात्मक इकाई है जहां जीवित जीव एक दूसरे और आसपास के वातावरण के साथ अंत:क्रिया करते हैं।)
> The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
("पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र" शब्द पहली बार 1935 में एक अंग्रेजी वनस्पतिशास्त्री A.G. टैन्सले द्वारा गढ़ा गया था।)
Characteristics of Ecosystem (पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र की विशेषताएँ):-
i. Links to other ecosystems (अन्य पारिस्थितिक तंत्रों से संबंध):- No ecosystem exist alone. They are interconnected via inputs and outputs.
(कोई भी पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र अकेले मौजूद नहीं होता है। बहुत से पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र इनपुट और आउटपुट के माध्यम से आपस में जुड़े हुए होते हैं।)
ii. Structural complexity (संरचनात्मक जटिलता):- Ecosystem is combination of many factors.
(पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र कई कारकों का संयोजन है।)
iii. Resiliense (लचीलापन):- It is ability of ecosystem to return to its original state after being exposed to a stressful situation.
(यह पारिस्थितिक तंत्र की तनावपूर्ण स्थिति के संपर्क में आने के बाद अपनी मूल स्थिति में लौटने की क्षमता है।)
iv. Dynamic stability (गतिशील स्थायित्व):- Ecosystems always undergo changes. Changes takes place both in living and non-living factors. Natural ecosystems remain stable during these change.
(पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में हमेशा परिवर्तन होते रहते हैं। परिवर्तन सजीव और निर्जीव दोनों कारकों में होता है। इन परिवर्तनों के दौरान प्राकृतिक पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र स्थायी रहता है।)
Habit:- The habits of plants and animals often change responding to changes in their environment. For example: if a species develops a disease or there is a drastic change of habitat or local climate, or it is removed to a different region, then the normal habits may change.
Habitat (आवास):- It is a place or area where a species grows, lives or thrives. It is a natural environment where an animal utilizes the resources to find food to eat, shelter from heat and cold, and protection from predators and mates.
(यह वह स्थान या क्षेत्र है जहां कोई जाति बढ़ती है, रहती है या पनपती है। यह एक प्राकृतिक वातावरण है जहां एक जन्तु खाने के लिए भोजन, गर्मी व ठंड से आश्रय, शिकारियों व साथियों से सुरक्षा खोजने के लिए संसाधनों का उपयोग करता है।)
Continuous Change (सतत परिवर्तन):- Habitats might change over time either due to important environmental changes like -
(निम्न महत्वपूर्ण पर्यावरणीय परिवर्तनों के कारण समय के साथ आवास बदल सकते हैं -)
i. Volcanoes (ज्वालामुखी)
ii. Tornadoes (तूफ़ान)
iii. Changes in climate over a lengthy period
(लम्बी अवधि में जलवायु में परिवर्तन)
iv. Deforestation (वनों की कटाई)
v. Urbanization (शहरीकरण)
vi. Pollution (प्रदूषण)
vii. Availability of food and water
(भोजन और जल की उपलब्धता)
Niche (निच):- It is defined as a functional role played by an organism in its ecosystem. It is the effective role and position of a species in its environment that describes how the species responds to the location of resources and competitors or predators.
(इसे किसी जीव द्वारा उसके पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में निभाई जाने वाली कार्यात्मक भूमिका के रूप में परिभाषित किया गया है। यह अपने पर्यावरण में किसी जाति की प्रभावी भूमिका और स्थिति है जो बताती है कि जाति संसाधनों और प्रतिस्पर्धियों या शिकारियों के स्थान पर कैसे प्रतिक्रिया करती है।)
> Joseph Grinnel coined the term “Niche”. He described a niche as the distributional unit specific to each species.
(जोसेफ़ ग्रिनेल ने "निच" शब्द दिया। उन्होंने प्रत्येक जाति के लिए विशिष्ट वितरण इकाई के रूप में एक निच का वर्णन किया।)
Sources of soil pollution:-
1. Agricultural sources:- Agricultural practices such as the use of non-organic products in crop and livestock production lead to soil pollution. These substances include artificial chemical pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers, as discussed below:
a. Pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides:-
> The introduction of modern pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides has resulted in an increase in the use of agricultural chemicals. These chemicals are used to control the pests, insects, weeds, fungi, and diseases that attack crops.
> Most of these chemicals are non-biodegradable, while others decompose to products that are toxic to soil. These products seep into the ground and act on the soil, thereby changing its structure, composition, and pH.
b. Improper use of fertilizer:-
> Fertilizers are mostly used to correct the deficiency of soil nutrients. A soil that is deficient of potassium, calcium, nitrogen, and sulfur, among other important macro-nutrients, should be treated with the right fertilizer and at the right amount.
> However, some farmers use fertilizers indiscriminately, leading to soil pollution. What is more, the materials used to manufacture fertilizers contain impurities that add to soil toxicity. For instance, the rock phosphates mineral used for the manufacture of mixed fertilizers contain traces of Asbestos, Cadmium, and Lead, which are transferred to the fertilizer during production. These metals are non-biodegradable and, with time, accumulate to toxic levels.
2. Industrial sources:-
> Industrial wastes or byproducts are among the leading causes of soil pollution. They can be in the form of gas, liquid, or solid substances. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide are some of the gases produced from industrial activities that cause considerable pollution to soil indirectly.
> These byproducts combine with the rainwater causing the production of acidic rain, which changes the soil pH and, after that, affects the overall crop production. Industries also dump their solid and liquid effluents into the soil.
3. Urban waste:-
> Most developing countries have a problem controlling the disposal of municipal garbage. The garbage is dumped anyhow and contains wastes such as food waste, plastics, industrial wastes, e-waste, and general household wastes.
> It appears as if the urban administrators do not know that most of the non-biodegradable waste materials could be recycled and the organic materials disposed of in areas designated for natural decomposition.
4. Sewer sludge:-
> Sewage plants also contribute to soil pollution owing to how they dispose of sewage sludge from domestic and commercial waste. The sewage sludge is usually treated before being disposed of into land or water bodies.
> When disposed of on land, the sludge can release high amounts of nutrients depending on the source that may surpass the natural soil nutrient requirement, thus posing a risk to human health and/or the ecosystem at large. Sewer sludge may also contain high levels of metals, further polluting the soil.
5. Mining and Smelting sources:-
> Mining activities cause soil pollution on a large scale. The operations cause a change of the landscape and expose the previously undisturbed soils to the elements of weather.
> Erosion of the soil containing some traces of mineral ores and fine materials around the mining areas results in sediment loading in the water sources and drainage ways. They end up in the soil through irrigation and flowing stormwater.
> There are also other hazardous materials that leak from mining activities, including harmful dust particles that are deposited on the surrounding soils. In developing countries, the pollution levels are even higher because activities such as gold mining are done using traditional methods, which lead to the release of mercury and other heavy metals into rivers and neighboring lands.
> Some of the polluted rivers are also used for irrigation, further leading to the pollution of the irrigated soils.
6. Nuclear sources:-
> Every living organism is continuously exposed to background radiation. If the levels of these radiations exceed a given limit, they lead to disastrous effects. Radiation pollution results from two sources, that is, the natural and anthropogenic actions.
> In nature, there are radioactive minerals that contribute to soil pollution such as radionuclides of radon-222 and Radium -226, Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and Carbon (C-14) are commonly found in soil, rock, water and air. All the radionuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.
> The explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include neutron, proton reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates in Carbon metabolism of plants, which is then transmitted into animals and human beings.
> Radioactive waste contains several radionuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine129, Cesium-137 and isotopes of Iron, which are most injurious. Strontium gets deposited in bones and tissues instead of calcium.
> Improper disposal of wastes from nuclear reactors containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium140, Cesium-144 and Lanthanum-140 along with primary nuclides Sr-90 with a half-life 28 years and Cs-137 with a half-life 30 years can, therefore, result in soil pollution and contamination.
> Rainwater carries Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be deposited on the soil, where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic forces.
7. Deforestation:- Though not a direct contributing factor to soil pollution, deforestation leads to the removal of the shield that protects the soil against the agents of erosion. The exposed soil is easily eroded and exposed to artificial chemical pollutants from the air, wind, and rain.
8. Biological agents:- Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta, which constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents.
9. Acid rain:- When pollutants in the air such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide mix with rain acid rain occurs, which has been found to impact soil negatively by dissolving important nutrients and even changing the soil’s structure.
Food Chain (खाध्य शृंखला):- Flow of energy in an ecosystem is one way process. The sequence of organism through which the energy flows, is known as food chain.
(किसी पारिस्थीतिक तंत्र में ऊर्जा का प्रवाह एक तरफ़ा प्रक्रिया है। जीवों का वह क्रम जिसके माध्यम से ऊर्जा प्रवाहित होती है, खाद्य श्रृंखला कहलाती है।)
> Food chains were first introduced by the Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in the 10th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by Charles Elton, which also introduced the food web concept.
(खाद्य श्रृंखलाएं पहली बार 10वीं शताब्दी में अरब वैज्ञानिक और दार्शनिक अल-जाहिज़ द्वारा पेश की गईं और बाद में चार्ल्स एल्टन द्वारा 1927 में प्रकाशित एक पुस्तक में लोकप्रिय हुईं, जिसने खाद्य वेब अवधारणा भी पेश की।)
> Each food chain is made up of different trophic levels.
(प्रत्येक खाद्य श्रृंखला विभिन्न पोषक स्तरों से बनी होती है।)
> Each organism represents a trophic level.
(प्रत्येक जीव एक पोषक स्तर का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है।)
> Each organism obtains energy from the organism of its lower trophic level.
(प्रत्येक जीव अपने निचले पोषक स्तर के जीव से ऊर्जा प्राप्त करता है।)
> Plants are called producers because they create their own food through photosynthesis.
(पौधों को उत्पादक कहा जाता है क्योंकि वे प्रकाश संश्लेषण के माध्यम से अपना भोजन स्वयं बनाते हैं।)
> Animals are consumers because they cannot create their own food, they must eat plants or other animals to get the energy that they need.
(जन्तु उपभोक्ता होते हैं क्योंकि वे अपना भोजन स्वयं नहीं बना सकते, उन्हें आवश्यक ऊर्जा प्राप्त करने के लिए पौधों या अन्य जंतुओं को खाना पड़ता है।)
Trophic levels in a food chain (खाद्य श्रृंखला में पोषक स्तर):- Each food chain is made up of different trophic levels. Each organism represents a trophic level. They are represented as T1, T2, T3 etc.
(प्रत्येक खाद्य श्रृंखला विभिन्न पोषक स्तरों से बनी होती है। प्रत्येक जीव एक पोषक स्तर का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है। इन्हें T1, T2, T3 आदि के रूप में दर्शाया जाता है।)
a. Producers (उत्पादक) (T1)
b. Consumers (उपभोक्ता):-
i. Primary consumers (प्राथमिक उपभोक्ता) (T2)
ii. Secondary consumers (द्वितीयक उपभोक्ता) (T3)
iii. Tertiary consumers (तृतीयक उपभोक्ता) (T4)
iv. Quaternary consumers (चतुर्थक उपभोक्ता) (T5)
c. Decomposers (अपघटक)
Types of Food Chain (खाध्य श्रखला के प्रकार):-
1. Nitrogen cycle (नाइट्रोजन चक्र):-
> Nitrogen is essential for life form owing to its presence in nucleic acids and proteins. Plants absorb nitrogen through microbial transformations.
(न्यूक्लिक अम्ल और प्रोटीन में उपस्थित होने के कारण नाइट्रोजन जीवन के लिए आवश्यक है। पौधे सूक्ष्मजीवी परिवर्तनों के माध्यम से नाइट्रोजन को अवशोषित करते हैं।)
> Stages (चरण):-
i. Nitrogen fixation (नाइट्रोजन स्थिरीकरण):-
- In this step the atmospheric nitrogen is primarily available in the inert form which is then converted to ammonia which can be used.
(इस चरण में वायुमंडलीय नाइट्रोजन मुख्य रूप से निष्क्रिय रूप में उपलब्ध होती है जिसे बाद में अमोनिया में परिवर्तित किया जाता है जिसका उपयोग किया जा सकता है।)
- During this process the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited into solid from the atmosphere and surface waters with the help of precipitation.
(इस प्रक्रिया के दौरान नाइट्रोजन गैस का अक्रिय रूप वायुमंडल और सतही जल से वर्षा की सहायता से ठोस में जमा हो जाता है।)
- The nitrogen then undergoes a number of processes to combine with the hydrogen to form ammonia.
(फिर नाइट्रोजन को हाइड्रोजन के साथ मिलकर अमोनिया बनाने के लिए कई प्रक्रियाओं से गुजरना पड़ता है।)
- This whole process of nitrogen fixation is done by symbiotic bacteria.
(नाइट्रोजन स्थिरीकरण की यह पूरी प्रक्रिया सहजीवी जीवाणुओं द्वारा की जाती है।)
- The fixation can occur through atmospheric fixation.
(स्थिरीकरण वायुमंडलीय स्थिरीकरण के माध्यम से हो सकता है।)
ii. Nitrogen assimilation (नाइट्रोजन स्वांगीकरण):- The primary producers tend to consume the nitrogen compounds with the help of roots and they are present in forms such as ammonia, nitrite ammonium ions or nitrate ions. They are used in the formation of proteins.
(प्राथमिक उत्पादक जड़ों की सहायता से नाइट्रोजन यौगिकों का उपभोग करते हैं और वे अमोनिया, नाइट्राइट अमोनियम आयन या नाइट्रेट आयन जैसे रूपों में मौजूद होते हैं। इनका उपयोग प्रोटीन के निर्माण में किया जाता है।)
iii. Ammonification (अमोनीकरण):- When plants or animals die the nitrogen that is present in the organic matter tends to be released back into the soil. The decomposers then take action on the nitrogen present in the soil hence producing ammonia by decomposition.
(जब पौधे या जन्तु मर जाते हैं तो कार्बनिक पदार्थों में उपस्थित नाइट्रोजन वापस मृदा में छोड़ दी जाती है। फिर अपघटक मृदा में उपस्थित नाइट्रोजन पर क्रिया करते हैं जिससे अपघटन द्वारा अमोनिया का उत्पादन होता है।)
iv. Nitrification (नाइट्रीकरण):- In this process the ammonia will be converted into nitrite which is framed by the oxidation of ammonia done by bacteria of Nitrosomonas species. Nitrites are then converted to nitrates which is an important conversion as the ammonia gas produced is very harmful for plants.
(इस प्रक्रिया में अमोनिया को नाइट्राइट में परिवर्तित किया जाता है जो नाइट्रोसोमोनास जाति के जीवाणुओं द्वारा किए गए अमोनिया के ऑक्सीकरण द्वारा तैयार किया जाता है। फिर नाइट्राइट को नाइट्रेट में बदल दिया जाता है जो एक महत्वपूर्ण रूपांतरण है क्योंकि उत्पादित अमोनिया गैस पौधों के लिए बहुत हानिकारक होती है।)
v. Denitrification (विनाइट्रीकरण):- In this step the nitrogen compounds tend to go back to the atmosphere by getting converted to nitrogen from nitrate. This conversion is done by Clostridium and Pseudomonas bacteria.
(इस चरण में नाइट्रोजन यौगिक नाइट्रेट से नाइट्रोजन में परिवर्तित होकर वायुमंडल में वापस चले जाते हैं। यह रूपांतरण क्लोस्ट्रीडियम और स्यूडोमोनास जीवाणुओं द्वारा किया जाता है।)
2. Sulfur cycle (सल्फर चक्र):-
> Sulfur, which is present mainly as a component of amino acid, may be found in soil as proteins. It is eventually absorbed by plants as sulfates, through a host of microbial transformations.
(सल्फर, जो मुख्य रूप से अमीनो अम्ल के एक घटक के रूप में पाया जाता है, मृदा में प्रोटीन के रूप में पाया जा सकता है। अनेक सूक्ष्मजैविक परिवर्तनों के माध्यम से अंततः इसे पौधों द्वारा सल्फेट के रूप में अवशोषित कर लिया जाता है।)
> The sulfur proteins convert into hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which is further broken down into sulfur in reaction with oxygen. With bacterial action, it becomes sulfate to be absorbed by plants.
(सल्फर प्रोटीन हाइड्रोजन सल्फाइड (H2S) में परिवर्तित हो जाता है जो ऑक्सीजन के साथ अभिक्रिया में सल्फर में टूट जाता है। जीवाणु क्रिया से यह पौधों द्वारा अवशोषित होने योग्य सल्फेट बन जाता है।)
> Stages (चरण):-
i. Decomposition of organic compounds (कार्बनिक यौगिकों का अपघटन):- The proteins tend to release amino acids consisting of sulfur acids which are then reduced to hydrogen sulfide by functioning of bacteria Desulfotomaculum.
(प्रोटीन सल्फर अम्ल से युक्त अमीनो अम्ल छोड़ते हैं जो बाद में जीवाणु डीसल्फोटोमाकुलम के कार्य द्वारा हाइड्रोजन सल्फाइड में बदल जाते हैं।)
ii. Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to elemental sulfur (हाइड्रोजन सल्फाइड का तत्वीय सल्फर में ऑक्सीकरण):- This process is done by bacteria belonging to Chlorobiaceae and Chromatiaceae.
(यह प्रक्रिया क्लोरोबिएसी और क्रोमेशिएसी से संबंधित जीवाणुओं द्वारा की जाती है।)
iii. Oxidation of elemental sulfur (तत्वीय सल्फर का ऑक्सीकरण):- The sulfur which has turned to its elemental form cannot be readily taken by plants and is hence converted to sulfates by chemolithotrophic bacteria found in soil.
(जो सल्फर अपने तत्वीय रूप में बदल गया है, उसे पौधों द्वारा आसानी से नहीं लिया जा सकता है और इसलिए मृदा में पाए जाने वाले कीमोलिथोट्रोफिक जीवाणुओं द्वारा इसे सल्फेट्स में बदल दिया जाता है।)
iv. Reduction of Sulfates (सल्फेट्स का अपचयन):- The sulfates are then converted to hydrogen sulfide by the bacteria named Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. There are two steps for the same where firstly the sulfates are converted to sulphites by using ATP and the second step consists of reduction of reduction of sulphite to hydrogen sulfide.
(फिर सल्फेट्स को डीसल्फोविब्रियो डीसल्फ्यूरिकन्स नामक जीवाणु द्वारा हाइड्रोजन सल्फाइड में बदल दिया जाता है। इसके लिए दो चरण हैं जहां पहले सल्फेट को ATP का उपयोग करके सल्फाइट में परिवर्तित किया जाता है और दूसरे चरण में सल्फाइट को हाइड्रोजन सल्फाइड में अपचयित करना शामिल है।)
Distribution of vegetation:-
a. Continuous distribution
b. Discontinuous distribution
a. Continuous distribution:- Some taxa are uniformly distributed in the area and give rise to continuous distribution. The area of a taxon or of a vegetation feature is never really continuous. It is of four main types:
i. Cosmopolitan:- These taxa are distributed all over the globe. They occur in all six widely inhabited continents, Eg.- many weeds and lower groups of cryptogams.
ii. Circumpolar:- These taxa are distributed around the North or South Pole Eg.- Saxifraga oppositaefolia, Eutrema edwardsii.
iii. Circumboreal:- These taxa are distributed around the boreal zone Eg.- Ribes (Gooseberries) and Danthonia (poultry grass).
iv. Pantropic:- These taxa occurring practically throughout the tropics and sub-tropics or at least widespread in the tropical region of Asia, Africa and America, Eg.- Palm family (Arecaceae).
b. Discontinuous distribution:- Most taxa may have isolated patches of areas widely separated apart. These constitute discontinuous distribution pattern. The plants are separated by wider gaps which cannot be overcome or crossed by the propagules. The main causes of discontinuity are environmental (due to particular topographic, climatic, edaphic or biotic characteristics of tracts separating the areas). Following are the familiar discontinuous types:
i. Arctic – Alpine:- Taxa are distributed in arctic region and in mountainous system of temperate zone. Eg.- Salix herbacea, Saxifraga oppositaefoilia.
ii. North Atlantic:- Taxa are distributed in North America and Europe and also some times locally in Asia. Eg.- Lycopodium inundatum and Spiranthes sp.
iii. North Pacific:- Taxa are distributed chiefly in North America and Eastern Asia, Eg.- Torreya (Torrey pine) Symplocarpus foetida.
iv. North—South American:- Taxa are distributed in North and South America but lacking continuity in between, Eg.- Sarraceniaceae (pitcher-plant family)
v. Europe – Asian:- Taxa are distributed in Europe and Asia but lacking continuity between. Eg.- Leontice altaica, Cimicifuga foetida.
vi. Mediterranean:- Taxa are distributed at European and African shore of Mediterranean sea. Eg.- Platanus
vii. Tropical:- Taxa are distributed in two or more separate tropical regions. Eg.- Buddleia
viii. South pacific:- Taxa are distributed at least in South America and New Zealand. Eg.- Jovellana
ix. South Atlantic:- Taxa are distributed at least in South America and Africa. Eg.- Asclepias
x. Antarctic:- Taxa are distributed on Arctic mainland and parts of South America, New Zealand and Austral islands. Eg.- Nothofagus
xi. Gondwana type:- Taxa are distributed in more than one continent which tends to embrace Africa, Madagascar, India and Australia. Eg.- Some sedges.
Geographical barriers:- They include the formation of a mountain range, the movement of a glacier, and the division of a large lake into several smaller lakes.
> Ecologists who study biogeography examine patterns of species distribution.
> No species exists everywhere; for example, the Venus flytrap is endemic to a small area in North and South Carolina.
> Endemic species:- It is one which is naturally found only in a specific geographic area that is usually restricted in size.
> Generalized species:- Species which live in a wide variety of geographic areas. The raccoon, for example, is native to most of North and Central America.
> Species distribution patterns are based on biotic and abiotic factors and their influences during the very long periods of time required for species evolution. Therefore, early studies of biogeography were closely linked to the emergence of evolutionary thinking in the eighteenth century.
> Some of the most distinctive assemblages of plants and animals occur in regions that have been physically separated for millions of years by geographic barriers.
> Biologists estimate that Australia, for example, has between 600,000 and 700,000 species of plants and animals. Approximately 3/4 of living plant and mammal species are endemic species found solely in Australia.
> Sometimes ecologists discover unique patterns of species distribution by determining where species are not found. Hawaii, for example, has no native land species of reptiles or amphibians, and has only one native terrestrial mammal, the hoary bat. Most of New Guinea, as another example, lacks placental mammals.
> Plants can be endemic or generalized.
> Endemic plants are found only on specific regions of the Earth, while generalists are found on many regions.
> Isolated land masses—such as Australia, Hawaii, and Madagascar—often have large numbers of endemic plant species.
> Some of these plants are endangered due to human activity. The forest gardenia (Gardenia brighamii), for instance, is endemic to Hawaii, only an estimated 15–20 trees are thought to exist.
Plant succession (पादप अनुक्रमण):- A series of changes in an ecological system across time. It is the process of gradual replacement of one plant community by another plant community which is of stable type.
(समय-समय पर पारिस्थितिक तंत्र में परिवर्तनों की एक श्रृंखला। यह एक पादप समुदाय की दूसरे पादप समुदाय द्वारा क्रमिक प्रतिस्थापन की प्रक्रिया है जो स्थायी प्रकार का होता है।)
3 types of communities are developed in plant succession (पादप अनुक्रमण में 3 प्रकार के समुदाय विकसित होते हैं):-
i. Pioneer community (अग्रणी समुदाय):- It is the first plant community which develops in a bare area.
(यह पहला पादप समुदाय है जो बंजर क्षेत्र में विकसित होता है।)
ii. Seral communities (सीरल समुदाय):- These are the plant communities that develop during the succession.
(ये वे पादप समुदाय हैं जो अनुक्रमण के दौरान विकसित होते हैं।)
iii.Climax community (चरमोत्कर्ष समुदाय):- It is the last invading community.
(यह अंतिम आक्रमणकारी समुदाय होता है।)
Causes of Plant succession (पादप अनुक्रमण के कारण):-
i. Initial or initiating causes (प्रारंभिक या शुरुआती कारण):- These causes include both biotic and climatic. It has factors like erosion, wind, fire, natural disasters, etc. These causes heavily affect the population of that locality.
(इन कारणों में जैविक और जलवायु दोनों शामिल हैं। इसमें कटाव, हवा, आग, प्राकृतिक आपदाएं आदि जैसे कारक हैं। ये कारण उस इलाके की आबादी को भारी प्रभावित करते हैं।)
ii. Ecesis causes (इकैसिस कारण):- These causes are also known as continuing causes. These can modify the population to adapt to several conditions of the environment. It includes several factors like aggregation, competition, migration, etc.
(इन कारणों को सतत कारणों के रूप में भी जाना जाता है। ये पर्यावरण की कई स्थितियों के अनुकूल होने के लिए जनसंख्या को रूपांतरित कर सकते हैं। इसमें एकत्रीकरण, प्रतिस्पर्धा, प्रवासन आदि जैसे कई कारक शामिल होते हैं।)
iii. Stabilizing causes (स्थायीकरण कारण):- These causes bring stability to the communities. It has several factors like the nature of the climatic condition of the area, fertility of land and abundance of availability of minerals, etc.
(ये कारण समुदायों में स्थिरता लाते हैं। इसके कई कारक हैं जैसे क्षेत्र की जलवायु स्थिति की प्रकृति, भूमि की उर्वरता और खनिजों की प्रचुर उपलब्धता आदि।)
Process of Plant succession (पादप अनुक्रमण की प्रक्रिया):- It consists of nine steps -
(इसमें नौ चरण होते हैं -)
i. Nudation (बंजरीकरण):- It is the development of bare area or nudation without any form of life. It may be caused due to several factors like volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, erosion, earthquake, forest fire, the spread of disease, etc.
(यह जीवन के किसी भी रूप के बिना बंजर क्षेत्र या बंजरीकरण का विकास है। यह कई कारकों के कारण हो सकता है जैसे ज्वालामुखी विस्फोट, भूस्खलन, बाढ़, कटाव, भूकंप, जंगल की आग, रोग का फैलना आदि।)
ii. Migration (प्रवास):- It is the arrival of reproductive bodies or propagules of various species in the new or bare area occurs by air, water, etc.
(इसमें नए या बंजर क्षेत्र में विभिन्न जातियों की जनन संरचनाओं या प्रवर्धों का आगमन हवा, जल आदि के माध्यम से होता है।)
iii. Germination (अंकुरण):- It is the settlement of reproductive bodies or propagules of various species in the new or bare area occurs by air, water, etc.
(यह नए या बंजर क्षेत्र में विभिन्न जातियों की जनन संरचनाओं या प्रवर्धों का स्थिरीकरण है जो हवा, जल आदि द्वारा होता है।)
iv. Ecesis (इकैसिस):- It is the adjustment of establishing species with the prevailing conditions.
(यह मौजूदा परिस्थितियों के साथ जातियों की स्थापना का समायोजन है।)
v. Colonization and Aggregation (कॉलोनीकरण और एकत्रीकरण):- Individual species are multiplied by reproduction and increase their numbers.
(व्यक्तिगत जातियाँ जनन द्वारा बहुगुणित होती हैं और उनकी संख्या में वृद्धि होती है।)
vi. Competition and Co-action (प्रतिस्पर्धा और सहयोग):- The individuals of a species compete with other organisms for food, space and other resources. The intraspecific and interspecific competition takes place along with interaction with the environment.
(एक जाति के जीव भोजन, स्थान और अन्य संसाधनों के लिए अन्य जीवों के साथ प्रतिस्पर्धा करते हैं। पर्यावरण के साथ अंतःक्रिया के साथ-साथ अंतरजातीय और अंतराजातीय प्रतिस्पर्धा होती है।)
vii. Invasion (आक्रमण):- New invasion by plants and animals takes place.
(पौधों और जंतुओं द्वारा नया आक्रमण होता है।)
viii. Reaction (अभिक्रिया):- It is the modification of the environment through the influence of living organisms on it.
(यह जीवित जीवों के प्रभाव के माध्यम से पर्यावरण का रूपान्तरण है।)
ix. Stabilization (स्थायीकरण):- The stage at which the final or climax community becomes more or less stabilized for a longer time in that particular environment.
(वह चरण जिस पर अंतिम या चरमोत्कर्ष समुदाय उस विशेष पर्यावरण में लंबे समय तक अधिक या कम स्थायी हो जाता है।)
Types of succession (अनुक्रमण के प्रकार):-
1. Based upon origin (उत्पत्ति के आधार पर):- 2 types - (2 प्रकार)
a. Primary succession (प्राथमिक अनुक्रमण):- It starts in a barren area, never having vegetation of any type where no living organism ever existed. It is a slow process. It usually takes several hundred to a thousand years.
(इसकी शुरुआत एक बंजर क्षेत्र से होती है, जहां किसी भी प्रकार की वनस्पति नहीं होती, जहां कभी कोई जीवित जीव मौजूद नहीं था। यह एक धीमी प्रक्रिया है. इसमें आमतौर पर कई सौ से एक हजार साल लग जाते हैं।)
barren areas (बंजर क्षेत्र):-
i. Newly exposed seafloor (नव उजागर समुद्री तल)
ii. Igneous rocks (आग्नेय चट्टानें)
iii. Sand dunes (रेत के टीले)
iv. New cooled lava sediments (नई ठंडी लावा तलछटें)
v. Newly submerged areas (नये जलमग्न क्षेत्र)
b. Secondary succession (द्वितीयक अनुक्रमण):- It starts in areas that somehow lost all the living organisms that existed there. It is a fast process. It usually takes 50-100 years to complete a grassland and 100-200 years to develop a forest.
(यह उन क्षेत्रों से शुरू होता है जहां किसी तरह वहां मौजूद सभी जीवित जीव नष्ट हो गए थे। यह एक तेज़ प्रक्रिया है। आमतौर पर एक घास के मैदान को पूर्ण करने में 50-100 साल और एक जंगल को विकसित करने में 100-200 साल लगते हैं।)
Causes of destruction of the previous community (पूर्व समुदाय के विनाश के कारण):-
i. Forest fire (जंगल की आग)
ii. Flooded lands (बाढ़ग्रस्त भूमि)
iii. Landslides (भूस्खलन)
iv. Earthquakes (भूकंप)
v. Drought (सूखा)
vi. Overgrazed areas (अतिचारा क्षेत्र)
vii. Storms (तूफान)
2. Based upon factors responsible for environment changes (पर्यावरण परिवर्तन के लिए उत्तरदायी कारकों पर आधारित):-
a. Autogenic succession (ऑटोजेनिक अनुक्रमण):- The succession in which organisms themselves bring change in the environment during succession. The organisms cause change in the soil.
(वह अनुक्रमण जिसमें जीव-जन्तु अनुक्रमण के दौरान स्वयं पर्यावरण में परिवर्तन लाते हैं। जीव-जंतु मृदा में परिवर्तन का कारण बनते हैं।)
Changes in the soil (मृदा में परिवर्तन):-
i. Accumulation of organic matter in form of humus or litter.
(ह्यूमस या कूड़े के रूप में कार्बनिक पदार्थ का संचय।)
ii. Alteration of soil nutrients.
(मृदा के पोषक तत्वों में परिवर्तन।)
iii. Change in pH of soil.
(मृदा के pH में परिवर्तन।)
b. Allogenic succession (एलोजेनिक अनुक्रमण):- The succession in which external environmental factors cause change in the environment during succession.
(वह अनुक्रमण जिसमें बाह्य पर्यावरणीय कारक अनुक्रमण के दौरान पर्यावरण में परिवर्तन का कारण बनते हैं।)
Factors which cause changes in the soil (कारक जो मृदा में परिवर्तन का कारण बनते हैं):-
i. Soil erosion (मृदा अपरदन)
ii. Leaching (लीचिंग)
iii. deposition of silt (गाद का जमाव)
iv. Clays (चिकनी मृदा)
v. Animals (जन्तु):- They act as pollinators, seed dispersers and herbivores. They can also increase nutrient content of the soil in certain areas.
(ये परागकारक, बीज फैलाने वाले और शाकाहारी के रूप में कार्य करते हैं। ये कुछ क्षेत्रों में मृदा में पोषक तत्वों की मात्रा भी बढ़ा सकते हैं।)
3. Based upon habitats (आवास के आधार पर):-
a. Hydrosere or Hydrarch (हाइड्रोसीयर या हाइड्रार्च):- Succession occurs where water is plenty, e.g. pond.
(अनुक्रमण वहां होता है जहां जल प्रचुर मात्रा में होता है, जैसे तालाब।)
b. Xerosere or Xerarch (जीरोसीयर या जीरार्च):- Succession occurs on dry habitat.
(अनुक्रमण शुष्क आवास पर होता है।)
i. Lithosere (लिथोसीयर):- Succession on newly exposed rock surface.
(नई उजागर चट्टान की सतह पर अनुक्रमण।)
ii. Psammosre (सेमोसीयर):- Succession which occurs on sand dunes.
(अनुक्रमण जो रेत के टीलों पर होता है।)
iii. Halosere (हेलोसीयर):- Succession which occurs on saline soil.
(अनुक्रमण जो लवणीय मिट्टी पर होता है।)
iv. Oxylosere (ओक्सीलोसीयर):- Succession on acidic soil.
(अम्लीय मृदा पर अनुक्रमण।)
Effect of Environmental pollution on Plants:-
Effect of Air Pollution on Plants:-
1. Damaging the plants:- Air pollution means the introduction of harmful chemicals into the air, like sulfur, nitrogen oxides and carbons. These chemicals cause damage to plants, with the plants physically showing the damage in a variety of ways, for instance through stunted growth, necrotic lesions, and changes in colors. Change in color could be represented by chlorosis which is when plant leaves turn yellow, reddening, mottling or bronzing.
2. Obstructing a plant’s growth:- Ozone is harmful to the atmosphere as it leads to holes in the upper atmosphere. In doing so, ultraviolet light is able to pass through the atmosphere, causing further damage to plants. Destruction by the ozone in the lower atmosphere restricts respiration, obstructs stomata, prevents photosynthesis and stunts plant growth.
3. Reduced yields and damage to crops:- Plants absorb pollutants from the air, making the air cleaner. With a build-up of too many pollutants, plants may fail to grow as they should, including being unable to perform photosynthesis. This, in turn, will mean plants will fail to have fewer yields than they should. Reduced yields especially in agricultural crops will mean hunger for the people and animals, and will also drive prices of such commodities up, destabilizing the economy.
4. Contributing to global warming:- With air pollution affecting plants and their leaves, it means they will be unable to absorb carbon dioxide as they should. This means more carbon dioxide will escape into the atmosphere, which will further damage the ozone layer, and cause a build-up of more greenhouse gases. This will also contribute to global warming and subsequently climate change.
Effect of Water Pollution on Plants:-
1. Denying plants essential nutrients:- Plants require specific nutrients, which they get from the soil, water and air. Polluted waters might kill some of those nutrients, further denying the plant the ability to get them.
2. Poisoning the soils:- Water pollution will introduce toxins that are harmful to plants. An accumulation of such toxins in the water will poison the soils even for other crops or plants. This will in turn negatively affect the solubility of essential nutrients and ions, like magnesium, calcium and potassium, which are particularly vital for proper plant growth. Water pollution also introduces large amounts of aluminum to the soil, which harms plants.
3. Facilitating the growth of rival plants:- Water pollution gives rise and ample room for other plants to grow. These new plants may not be native to a region and could be detrimental to the existing plants. These weeds will grow well because the nutrients they require for survival are collected in the polluted water.
4. Killing and harming plants:- Water pollution changes the growing conditions of plants, including eroding necessary nutrients and bringing in new and hazardous ones. This means the normal growth of plants will be affected and the plants themselves will be harmed. If the condition is persistent, the plants will eventually die. Water pollution can also alter a plant’s surrounding pH levels, such as acid rain, which also harms and kills plants.
Effect of Soil Pollution on Plants:-
1. Poisoning the soils:- Toxins will enter the soil and poison it, causing a chain reaction. The result will be an alteration in the soil’s biodiversity, reduction in the soil’s organic matter, as well as its capacity to act as a filter. With regards to plants, the soil becomes weak and is not able to sustain plants as compared to previous years. This explains why most farms which rely on fertilizers, have been giving out lower yields year after year. Soil pollution increases the salinity of the soil making it unfit for vegetation, thus making it useless and barren.
2. Poisoning the plants:- As mentioned underwater pollution, toxins poison the soil and in turn, poison the plants themselves. Land pollution through oil spills, pesticides, landfills, illegal dumping and many other sources results in chemicals seeping into the soil and eventually into the plants. These chemicals and metals damage plant cells and hinder them from obtaining the necessary nutrients for growing. This explains why soil pollution also leads to lower yields and poor quality harvests.
3. The effects reach our food chain:- Soil pollution, affects plants, meaning they will absorb the pollutants. If we feed on such plants or crops, like vegetables, we inadvertently end up poisoning ourselves. It also means we do the same by consuming animal products like meat and milk if the animals themselves fed on these compromised plants.
4. Affecting waterways:- When the soil is contaminated, water that is stored in the soil and below it is also affected, causing a lot more issues. This water is used by millions directly and indirectly. The indirect part is that other people will grow crops using the same contaminated water, spreading the problem to more people who may be many miles away.
Effect of Environmental pollution on Animals:-
Effect of air pollution on animals:-
1. Altered animal behavior:- An increasing number of studies demonstrated that pollutants can trigger bizarre behavior in animals. For example, endocrine disruptors, heavy metals, and PCBs have a direct influence on the social and mating behaviors of animals.
2. Diseases and Mortality:- In most cases, the effect is indirect but slowly kills animals by disrupting biological processes. Air pollutants disrupt endocrine function, cause organ injury, increase vulnerability to stresses and diseases, lower reproductive success. Prolonged exposure to air pollutants can increase the expression of markers of neurodegenerative disease pathologies.
3. Biodiversity loss:- Air pollution is a major driving force changing the basic structure and function of ecosystems. For example, excess deposition of airborne nitrogen (N) in the form of ammonia is among the main stressors to biodiversity. Biodiversity is critical for animals because an impairment can result in alterations in the food chain and loss of certain species. Biodiversity loss can also increase the risk of infectious diseases.
4. Change in species distribution:- Industrial air pollution can cause a change in the abundance of a particular species. For example, the loss of certain fish species due to higher aluminum levels may allow insect species to increase, which may in turn benefit ducks that feed on insects. But this loss could be detrimental to eagles, ospreys, and other animals that depend on fish as their food.
Effect of water pollution on animals:-
> Chemical contaminants carried by industrial wastes kill a lot of smaller aquatic organisms, such as frogs, fish, tadpoles, etc. This, in turn, causes a loss of food source for bigger aquatic creatures, leading them to either consume poisoned, dead fish and perish, or leave their natural habitat to go in search of food in other aquatic quarters. Often, this leads to sickness and death of these animals due to the inability to adapt to changed water temperatures, unfavorable tides, as well as exposure to new predators.
> An excess of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus in the water, leads to an increased growth of toxic algae and aquatic plants, that cause poisoning and death in fish and other animals who feed on them.
> Presence of huge quantities of mercury in water has led to a lot of undesirable changes in aquatic species. Too much mercury leads to hormonal imbalances and glandular damage, leading to abnormal behavioral shifts. Also, mercury is a toxic metallic chemical that gives a huge blow to the reproductive functions, growth and development of animals, that are continuously exposed to high doses of it.
> Oil spills that introduce unhealthy amounts of oil into the marine environment also make marine animals sick and lead to their unnatural deaths.
> Dumping solid trash such as plastic, metallic scrap, garbage, etc., may block aquatic channels, and can also cause small animals to get trapped in the debris. Most water-dwelling animals tend to suffocate or drown on being trapped and unable to swim.
> Polluted water used for irrigation also contaminates the soil and the agricultural produce. This may lead to health issues in herbivorous animals who feed on agricultural plants and leftovers.
> These pollutants can radically alter the metabolism of a number of soil-dwelling bacteria and insects, making them perish or unsuitable for consumption by common predators of the local ecosystem.
> Atmospheric pollutants may get mixed with clouds and fall back on earth as acid rain. This toxic shower is potent enough to inflict mortal injuries to any life form that gets exposed to it.
Effect of noise pollution on animals:-
> Animals rely heavily on sounds to communicate, to find food, avoid predators etc.
> Pets react more aggressively due to exposure to constant noise. They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems.
> Overexposure to high intensity of noise affects the hearing ability of many animals.
> Man-made noise affects mating calls and echolocation. This leads to reduction in survival and reproduction rates.
> At an ecosystem level, noise pollution could lead to migration of animals. Their migration can affect the crop production. Because many animals such as bats pollinate bananas, peaches, agave and other cash crops.
Effect of Environmental pollution on Human beings:-
Effect of air pollution on human beings:-
> Air Pollution can lead to increasing diseases like throat infections and lung cancer in humans.
> Every year, diseases related to air pollution kill and hospitalize millions of people.
> According to World Health Organization estimates, one out of every eight fatalities worldwide is caused by conditions related to air pollution.
> New research has found significant correlations between the development of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders and both outdoor and indoor air pollution.
> Ischemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and acute lower respiratory infections in children are among the most prevalent diseases induced by air pollution.
> Ischemic heart disease, or coronary heart disease, is connected to the deposition of calcium or other materials like fat within the coronary artery. This causes blockages, preventing blood from reaching the heart and other vital organs. According to new research, air pollution hastens the occlusion of arteries, increasing the risk of ischemic heart disease.
> Air pollution lead to depletion of the ozone layer that protects us from harmful UV sun rays. The presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is degrading the ozone layer on Earth. As the ozone layer thins, damaging rays are emitted back to Earth, potentially causing skin and eye problems. UV rays have the power to harm crops as well.
Effect of water pollution on human beings:-
> Microplastics can enter the body through drinking water or eating contaminated seafood.
> Microplastics have been linked to oxidative stress, inflammatory reactions, and metabolic disorders in humans, according to research.
> Contaminated water has significant negative effects on pregnant women who are exposed to chemicals; it increases the rate of low birth weight, affecting foetal health.
> Hair loss, liver cirrhosis, renal failure, and neural disorder are all caused by metal contaminated water.
> Domestic and hospital sewage include a variety of dangerous germs, and dumping it into the water without sufficient treatment can result in an outbreak of deadly diseases like typhoid and cholera.
> Metals in industrial wastewaters such as lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, mercury, and cadmium harm humans and other creatures.
> Consumption of arsenic-polluted water causes arsenic accumulation in body parts such as blood, nails, and hair, resulting in skin lesions, rough skin, dry and thickened skin, and eventually skin cancer.
> Bacterial action converts mercury molecules in wastewater to extremely poisonous methyl mercury, which can induce numbness in the limbs, lips, and tongue, hearing, blurred eyesight, and mental instability.
> In humans, mercury pollution of water bodies produces Minamata (neurological condition).
> Lead poisoning is caused by lead (Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues).
> Anemia, headaches, muscle weakness, and a bluish line around the gums are all symptoms of lead poisoning.
> Cadmium-contaminated water can induce itai itai disease, also known as ouch-ouch disease (a painful bone and joint condition), as well as lung and liver cancer.
Other Diseases:-
i. Bacterial Diseases:-
> The most common causes of diarrhoea are untreated drinking water and fecal contamination of water.
> Campylobacter jejuni causes diarrhoea in 4% to 15% of the world's population.
> The most common symptoms of diarrhoea include fever, stomach pain, nausea, and headache.
> Shigellosis is an infection caused by the Shigella bacteria.
> Humans' digestive tracts are affected, and the intestinal lining is damaged.
> Salmonella bacteria are discovered in contaminated water, causing intestinal inflammation and, in some cases, death.
ii. Viral Diseases:-
> Hepatitis is a viral infection of the liver caused by polluted water.
> Hepatitis symptoms include jaundice, loss of appetite, weariness, pain, and a high temperature.
> If it continues over an extended period of time, it may even be deadly and can result in death.
> Encephalitis is an inflammatory disease spread by mosquito bites. The eggs of the Culex mosquito are laid in contaminated water.
> Poliomyelitis is caused by the poliomyelitis virus, which is spread through contaminated water.
> It produces a sore throat, fever, nausea, constipation, diarrhoea, and paralysis in certain people.
> Viruses such as rotaviruses, adenoviruses, caliciviruses, and the Norwalk virus, which breed in contaminated water, cause gastroenteritis.
iii. Parasitic Diseases:-
> The symptoms of cryptosporidiosis include diarrhoea, loose or watery stools, stomach pains, and an upset stomach.
> Entamoeba histolytica, a parasite which attacks the stomach lining, is found in the contaminated water.
> According to the WHO, there are around 4 billion diarrheal cases worldwide, with 2.2 million fatalities.
Effect of noise pollution on human beings:- Human response to noise varies from man to man according to age and temperament. It may vary even in the same individual from time to time because of change in health, fatigue and other conditions. The effects of noise on human beings are as under:-
a. Auditory effects:-
i. Deafness or impaired hearing:- Prolonged exposures to noise lead to gradual deterioration of internal ear and subsequently hearing loss or deafness. It may occur due to continuous exposure to noise level of more than 90 dB. It may be temporary or permanent. Explosions or other high intensity sounds can also cause immediate deafness by rupturing the ear drums or damaging the cochlea. Many time hearing loss is attributed to occupation.
ii. Auditory fatigue:- It is defined as a temporary loss of hearing after exposure to sound. Continuous humming sound such as whistling and buzzing in the ears.
b. Non auditory effects:-
i. Irritation and annoyance:- Noise, sometimes, leads to emotional disturbances and makes people loose their temper. It can interfere with proper rest and sleep. Annoyance seems to increase with the loudness of the sound.
ii. Work efficiency:- It has been observed that noise reduces the efficiency of work.
iii. Physiological effects:- It includes dilation of the pupils, paling of skin, tensing of voluntary muscles, diminishing of gastric secretions, increase in diastolic blood pressure and the sudden injection of adrenalins into blood stream which increases neuromuscular tension, nervousness, irritability and anxieties. It can adversely affect the development of unborn babies.
c. Other health effects:- Noise is also associated with headache, giddiness, sweating, nausea, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, disturbed sleep pattern, psychological stress.
d. Trouble Communicating:- High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow people to communicate freely. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional balance.